JP, London 25th March 2011
The ways we move, breath, eat influence our way of thinking. We can stimulate our nervous system and influence our brain by engaging our body and mind. Through the movement and the Oxygen/Carbon Dioxide exchange we can change our thinking patterns, which eventually lead to the brain structure change (Neuroplasticity). Before I move on to the neuroscience I would like briefly mention what's the main focus of this essay. The main interest of my research is a movement in general with strong emphasis on dance. I would like to refer to different types of movement therapy particularly with input on Dance Movement Therapy and its impact on the brain function and its structure. How movement influences our habits, thinking patterns, which area of the brain gets affected by several behaviors and which are the alternative ways to improve mental health by balancing our emotions. As I mentioned earlier our brain structure is changeable. The neuroplasticity refers to the ability of the human brain to change as a result of one's experience, that the brain is 'plastic' and 'malleable'. The discovery of this feature of the brain is rather modern; the previous belief amongst scientists was that the brain does not change after the 'critical period' of infancy (a limited time in which an event can occur, usually to result in some kind of transformation.) If the organism does not receive the appropriate stimulus during this "critical period", it may be difficult, ultimately less successful, or even impossible, to develop some functions later in life.[1]
To establish a framework for conceptualizing the research and its behavioral implications, I begin with a simplified review of the geography of the central nervous system (CNS), that is, the brain and spinal cord. With a focus primarily on the brain, concentration is on its general configuration and functions, specifically, common basic formations and neuronal network systems in addition to some general information concerning neurotransmission.
Brain consists of hemispheres, cortices and lobes. Neural landmarks help differentiate and identify specific regions of the brain, such as ridges (gyri), grooves or depressions between the ridges (sulci) and grooves even deeper than sulci (fissures).
The neocortex, a feature distinguishing humans from lower forms of animals, endows us with the potential for complex cognitive and oral language function. As the prime center of operation, the CNS processes and controls all human behaviors, and varies little from person to person in terms of form, organization and function. The hemispheres - joined together by the corpus callosum, a large collection of nerve fibers that maintains neuronal communication between them—constitute the largest portion of the human brain.
The outermost layer, the cerebral cortex, is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. Deeply embedded in the cerebrum (i.e., the hemispheres containing the four lobes) are three smaller regions. These comprise the nuclei of the basil ganglia (a subcortical mass of nerve fibers that deals with complex habitual movement), the hippocampus (its name indicating a seahorse-like shape) and the amygdala (meaning almond-shaped). The latter two, which make up part of the limbic system are commonly considered the “emotional brain” or the “seat of emotions,” regions that will be addressed more fully below.[2]
Beneath, and to the rear of cerebrum lies the somewhat conically shaped brain stem, a tri-part structure of upper, middle and lower sections. The upper brain stem—sometimes referred to as the diencephalon—contains the thalamus, hypothalamus and pineal gland. The middle portion is simply known as the midbrain, while the lower brain stem is composed of two formations, the pons and medulla oblongata. Behind the brain stem and just above the spinal cord, rests the cerebellum, a regulator of posture, balance and motor coordination.[3]
The frontal lobes of the neocortex as indicated by its name, is located anterior to the other three lobes referred to above. Considered the thinking part of the brain, it is associated with cognition (particularly the most anterior portion, the prefrontal cortex), i.e., judgment, planning, abstract thinking, problem solving and initiative, as well as personality and behavior. The pre-motor and motor cortex, the hind section of the frontal lobes, deal with coordinated motor actions and speech articulation. Interestingly, each side of the motor cortex controls muscle movement on the opposite side of the body. As a result, damage to the right hemisphere impairs movement on the left side of the body and vice versa. In terms of speech, damage to the lower left side (Broca’s area) causes impaired articulation (expressive aphasia) while damage to the lower right lobe leads to problematic spatial judgment. Here then are discrete exemplars of differences in function between the two sides.
As explicated by Luppino and Rizzolatti (2000) the prefrontal motor areas of the cerebral cortex are responsible for converting incoming sensory information into motor instructions or actions.[4] Similarly, this area is purported to mediate other complex behaviors, including imitation or awareness of actions performed by others - “associative motor learning.” In other words, within the pre-motor cortex is a class of neurons actively engaged in the process of simulation. [5]
Immediately next to the motor area strip, the parietal lobes extend from a central location toward the posterior part of the cerebrum. The primary sensory and secondary areas of this lobe—those neurons closest to the motor strip and fanning posteriorally—are responsive to body sensations of temperature, touch, pressure and pain. In addition, aspects of body scheme and language are associated with the parietal lobes. In fact, dysfunction in the lower region is affiliated with reading disability.[6]
In the lower sections of the cerebrum, behind and below the frontal and parietal areas, lie the temporal lobes. While its upper section mediates auditory function, the lower portion deals with memory. Consequently, injury to these areas may cause hearing and/or memory impairments, as will damage to a particular section of the lower left temporal lobe (Wernikes’s Area) may result in the inability to comprehend spoken language (i.e., receptive aphasia). The temporal nuclei are, in addition, believed to be involved with multisensory integration of touch, vision and hearing.[7]
Occupying the hind- and lowermost section of the cortex, the occipital lobes seem to emerge out of the dorsal sides of the parietal and temporal lobes. As the primary visual center, it is directly linked to the eyes via the optic nerves. Damage to these nerves may range from visual impairment to blindness. The more generalized association area of the lobes is devoted to higher-level interpretation or analysis of visual information.[8]
This somewhat triangular structure within the cerebral cortex—insula, occasionally referred to as the central lobe or the Island of Reil—lies hidden within the convolutions of deep neuronal fissures. It extends beneath regions of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes and behind a section of the hippocampus. The insula is associated with visceral functions and integration of autonomic information.[9]
Deep within the cerebrum, between the neo-cortical lobes and the brain stem sits a neural complex known as the limbic system, the name indicating a C-shaped or rim-like structure. This phylogenetically old neuronal formation is common to most animal species and generally identified with emotion and behavior. Importantly, its functions are mediated through complex axonal connections to the neocortex and the brain stem. Likewise it has extensive neural hook-ups with the basil ganglia, a sub-cortical area that, according to Marsden (1986), has some basic ability to “integrate” thought and emotion in motor behavior.
Within the scope of the limbic neural network are the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus. They range from regulation of the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems to survival mechanisms of flight-fight–freeze. Importantly, the limbic brain is regarded as the home of primary emotions, such as fear, anger, sadness, joy disgust, as well as aggression. The amygdala, in particular, is associated with fear, pleasure and aggression.[10] A point of emphasis is the role the hippocampus plays in the imprinting of recent memory.
The brain stem - the lower level portion of the brain receives incoming stimuli from sensory receptors located in the various sense organs of the body creating a chain reaction. Various electro-chemical discharges are transmitted along the sensory spinal tracts to the brain stem, the conduit to higher centers. At this point, the brain stem serves as a filtering station, determining whether incoming impulses will be inhibited or potentiated for further neural networking. The transmission cycle is completed when these electro-chemical discharges exit the CNS via the effector (motor) tracts of the spinal cord where they activate targeted muscle groups in the form of an action, thought or behavior.[11]
Equally significant, the brain stem plays a crucial role in basic survival functions, controlling or mediating vegetative operations such as swallowing, respiration, heart rate and blood pressure, and aspects of consciousness and arousal states.[12]
Innervation of the CNS is generated by electro-chemical impulses. A nervous system lacking such enabling trans- mission within the complex of neural networks would be tantamount to a car without a battery and fuel. A dual pronged operation, the process begins with an electrical discharge from the cell body of a neuron that travels down its axon (i.e., branch-like extension) to its juncture point (terminus), potentiating the release of a neurochemical substance—a neu- rotransmitter, a chemical messenger required to transmit the neuronal impulse across a synapse. This tiny bridge-like gap between neurons is, in essence, a conduit of symbiotic connectivity (Moore, 1969). The chemical transmitters, in turn, serve to trigger other cells carrying affiliated compounds. In effect, an intricate relay is established throughout the brain for the transmission of sensory inputs and their consequent motor (efferent) outputs (Kolb & Wishaw, 1985).
Unlike the story of the blind men who inaccurately perceived the elephant based on the particular part each touched, the brain cannot be conceived as a collection of parts independently driven. From highly specialized zones to diffuse cortical association areas, the brain operates as a collective, its global mission, the outward manifestation of meaningful actions and behaviors rather than isolated muscle movements (Berrol, 1992).
To reassume the brain consists of nerve cells (neurons) and glial cells. Glial cells, sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for the brain's neurones, commonly known as the glue of the nervous system. They have 4 founctions: to surround neurons and hold them in place, to supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons, to insulate one neuron from another, and to destroy pathogens and remove dead neurones, they do modulate neurotransmission).
Neurogenesis is a birth of neurones, the process by which neurons are generated. Most active during pre-natal development, the new neurons continue to be produced into adulthood, were highly plastic. This belief is being challenged by new findings, suggesting all areas of the brain are plastic even after childhood.[13]
Decades of research have now shown that substantial changes occur in the lowest neocortical processing areas, and that these changes can profoundly alter the pattern of neuronal activation in response to experience. According to the theory of neuroplasticity, experience can actually change both the brain's physical structure (anatomy) and functional organization (physiology) from top to bottom. Neuroscientists are presently engaged in a reconciliation of critical period studies demonstrating the immutability of the brain after development with the more recent research showing how the brain can, and does, change.
As the experience changes the brain why the movement couldn't be that experience?
Taking in consideration the amount of biochemical reactions taking place in our body and brain due to the movement we basically state that our mental health can be actually controlled, influenced by our physical (movement, dance...) and psychological aspect (movement meditation) and lead to mental health improvement. Of course each case is different and we are talking about single traumatic episodes rather than complex. Thought we still can change the brain function in any other even more severe cases such a PTSD/ Bipolar. As we developed during the years a symptom of rational deficit and emotional arousal our brain structure has changed and imbalanced. In order to get back the control of our negative thoughts we develop different movement and mindfulness techniques such as: Expressive arts therapy, dance meditation, body-mind centering - somatic experiencing, Feldenkrais , Laban Movment Analysis (LMA) and Dance/Movement Therapy (DMT). I would like to highline the nature of these therapeutic methods especially DMT in relation to the nervous system, brain changes and the impact on mental health.
Expressive arts therapy is the practice of using imagery, storytelling, dance, music, drama, poetry, movement, dream work, and visual arts together, in an integrated way, to foster human growth, development, and healing. The reason I mention this particular movement therapy is the documentary film ‘I Remember Better When I Paint is’ proving it’s aim. This French documentary film is about the positive impact of art and other creative therapies in people with Alzheimer's disease and how these approaches can change the way the disease is viewed by society. The film examines the way creative arts bypass the limitations of dementia disorders such as Alzheimer's and shows how patients' still-vibrant imaginations are strengthened through therapeutic art. The documentary includes interviews with renowned neurologists who explain how creative activities engage areas of the brain that are not damaged by the disease and thus reawaken a sense of personality, identity and dignity.[14]
Dancemeditation is a form of moving meditation similar to Tai Chi. Many people who have practiced these disciplines for many years believe the mental and physical training required to do so has enhanced their mental and physical health. There is a lot of sound scientific evidence to support this belief. Scientific literature indicates that any form of meditation produces positive changes to brain function, including stress reduction. Some form of moderately strenuous bodywork (yoga, Tai Chi, martial arts) is usually part of most meditation traditions. Even sitting meditation, which is purely mental, requires the body. If maintained for long periods of time, the cross-legged sitting posture utilized by such practices is a very demanding position for the knee and sacroiliac joints, as well as the internal organs. Expert sitting meditators probably would test out as having good core muscle strength. The difference between moving forms of meditation and sitting meditation is the metabolic requirements of each task for the body and the motor programs required of the brain and skeleto-muscular systems. Sitting meditation requires one motor program and fewer demands on the cardiovascular system. Sitting meditation requires the brain. Moving meditation requires the same modifications to the cardiovascular system as moderate aerobic activity. These modifications support the increased energy demands by the muscles, nerves, and organs required to execute movements.
Dancemeditation also includes sitting and other static practices. Sitting meditation causes changes in pathways between neurons living in the brain. The brain is composed of many specialized cell groups that create and underlie our experience of emotion, proprioception, thought, memory, and action. Changes to the thickness of portions of the brain required for metacognition, reflections on reflection, open presence, attention to somatosensation, and other forms of meditation are seen in brain scans of individuals who have meditated habitually for greater than 25 years. Dancemeditation could be expected to produce such changes as well.[15]
Somatic Experiencing is a form of therapy aimed at relieving and resolving the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other mental and physical trauma-related health problems by focusing on the client’s perceived body sensations (or somatic experiences). Symptoms of trauma are the effect of a dysregulation of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). It further postulates that the ANS has an inherent capacity to self-regulate that is undermined by trauma, and that the inherent capacity to self-regulate can be restored by the procedures of Somatic Experiencing.[16] Somatic Experiencing attempts to promote awareness and release of physical tension that proponents believe remains in the body in the aftermath of trauma. They believe this occurs when the survival responses (which can take the form of orienting, fight, flight or "freeze") of the ANS are aroused, but are not fully discharged after the traumatic situation has passed.[17]
The Feldenkrais method is a somatic educational system that allows the body to move and function more efficiently and comfortably. Its goal is to re-educate the nervous system and improve motor ability. The system can accomplish much more, relieving pressure on joints and weak points, and allowing the body to heal repetitive strain injuries. Continued use of the method can improve mental health, relieve pain and lead to higher standards of achievement in sports, the martial arts, dancing and other physical disciplines.[18]
Feldenkrais gave the name "Awareness Through Movement" to a series of demonstrations he devised as he was learning to walk normally with a seriously damaged knee. His lessons were intended to provide concrete directions for attending to and learning about the physical experience associated with the movements. The goal was to increase the clients' awareness of the mechanical details and the sensation, opening the possibility of actively choosing new patterns of movement. Feldenkrais taught that changes in our ability to move are inseparable from changes in our conscious perception of ourselves as embodied. He said that changes in the physical experience could be described as changes in our internal self image, which can be conceived as the mapping of the motor cortex to the body. Feldenkrais felt that activity in the motor cortex played a key role in proprioception (the sense of body position). He aimed to clarify and work therapeutically with this relationship, with instructions that involved both specific movement instructions and invitations to introspection.[19] Clearly conceived of the process of learning as producing new pathways, associations, and conncetions in the central nervous system. The studies of this technique done by Kolt and Netz proved that through the practice people reduce the anxiety, depressive mood and improve the motor imaginary balance and mobility measures. [20]
Laban Movement Analysis (LMA) is a way and language for interpreting, describing, visualizing and notating all ways of human movement. Created by Rudolf Laban, LMA draws on his theories of effort and shape to describe, interpret and document human movement. Used as a tool by dancers, athletes, physical and occupational therapists, it is one of the most widely used systems of human movement analysis. LMA is a language used to describe and annotate dancing movements and is divided in components: Body, Space, Shape and Effort. Despite its general framework is widely used in physical and mental therapy.
Labanotation is a record of how we move so that we can do the same thing again and again. The symbols are placed on a vertical staff, the horizontal dimension of the staff represents the symmetry of the body, and the vertical dimension time. The location of the symbol on the staff defines the body part it represents. The centre line of the staff represents the centre line of the body, symbols on the right represent the right side of the body, symbols on the left, the left side.[21]
Dance Movement Therapy (DMT) is the psychotherapeutic use of movement to promote emotional, cognitive, physical, and social integration of individuals. Is practiced in mental health, rehabilitation, medical, educational, forensic settings, nursing homes, day care centers, disease prevention, and health promotion programs. The dance/movement therapist focuses on movement behavior as it emerges in the therapeutic relationship. Expressive, communicative, and adaptive behaviors are used for group and individual treatment. Body movement as the core component of dance simultaneously provides the means of assessment and the mode of intervention for dance/movement therapy.[22]
The theory of DMT is based upon the idea that the body and mind are inseparable and rests on certain theoretical principles. These are:
▪ Body and mind interact, so that a change in movement will affect total functioning
▪ Movement reflects personality
▪ The therapeutic relationship is mediated at least to some extent non-verbally, for example through the therapist mirroring the client’s movement
▪ Movement contains a symbolic function and as such can be evidence of unconscious process
▪ Movement improvisation allows the client to experiment with new ways of being
▪ DMT allows for the recapitulation of early object relationships by virtue of the largely non-verbal mediation of the latter.
Through the unity of the body, mind, and spirit, DMT provides a sense of wholeness to all individuals.
The creative process has four stages, which occur during DMT. Each stage contains a smaller set of goals which correlate to the larger purpose of DMT. The stages and goals of DMT vary with each individual. Although the stages are progressive, the stages are usually revisited several times throughout the entire DMT process. The four stages are:
Preparation: the warm-up stage, safety is established
Incubation: relaxed, let go of conscious control, movements become symbolic
Illumination: meanings become apparent, can have positive and negative effects.
Evaluation: discuss significance of the process, prepare to end therapy. [23]
DMT can be used to heal serious disorders and diseases. Although DMT is promoted to reduce stress and center the body, this therapy is very effective in helping to heal other disabilities and diseases. Examples of these include:
▪ Autism: therapists connect on a sensory-motor level, provides a sense of acceptance and expands skills and cognitive abilities, increases maturity
▪ Learning Disabilities: develops better organizational skills, learns/experiences control and choice, higher self confidence, new inspirations to learn
▪ Mental Retardation: improves body image, social skills, coordination, and motor skills, promotes communication
▪ Deaf and Hearing Impaired: reduces feelings of isolation, provides inspiration for relationships
▪ Blind and Visually Impaired: improves body image, motor skills, and personal awareness
▪ Physically Handicapped: improves motor skills and body image, provides a way to communicate and express emotions
▪ Elderly: provides social interaction, expression, and exercise, alleviates fears of loneliness and isolation
▪ Eating Disorders: alters distorted body images which helps end destructive behaviors, discovers symbolic meanings behind disorder/food
▪ PTSD: weaves together past and present through symbolism in a “safe place” to confront painful memories
▪ Parkinson's Disease: uses rhythm to help reduce body dysfunctions which improves motor abilities, balance, and use of limbs
▪ Holistic Birth Preparation: implores relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety, learn breathing techniques and release energy, builds confidence to help cope with labor, birth and early parenting.[24]
I would like to mention about the research done on: 'Neuroscience meets dance/movement therapy: Mirror neurons, the therapeutic process and empathy'. The recent discovery by neuroscientists of mirror neurons has launched a spate of scientific investigations. A keystone of the therapeutic process of dance/movement therapy (D/MT), the concept of mirroring is very important subjects of neuroscience. An interactive phenomenon, studies are revealing that the identical sets of neurons can be activated in an individual who is simply witnessing another person performing a movement as the one actually engaged in the action or the expression of some emotion or behavior. The domains of behavior currently under investigation span motoric, psychosocial and cognitive functions, including specific psychosocial issues related to attunement, attachment theory and empathy. Although D/MT embodies empathic forms, until recently their neurological underpinnings have not been studied. The research addresses the theoretical constructs of the mirror matching mechanism and empathy, and the implications for D/MT. Beginning with the basic mapping of important central nervous system structures and their behavioral functions, the focus shifts to the mirror neurons with respect to the formative years vis-à-vis the developmental issues of empathy—attachment, attunement, social cognition and morality. [25]
As the movement is our vital tool to be able to function mentally and physically we need to be aware of it. It’s a source of our energy, which makes us coexist in the society and use our mental and physiological capacity. As I mentioned before we can change our thinking patterns not only through the way we move but also influence our brain structure change if we apply appropriate tools explained above. I based my research on different cognitive movement therapies analysis related to the brain function and mental health aspects. In some of them I haven’t found the evidence of scientific research how they change the brain’s function and improve mental health. And this could be a starting point of my own future research. For a time being I used the available tools to give a general overview on different movement therapies and their influence on the nervous system structure. How they affect some regions of the brain, especially the right side of prefrontal cortex responsible for our emotions, which is the main area of dysfunction in mental health area of psychotherapy. I started form the brain structure to give some biochemical evidence of our psychological and psychosomatic behaviors, followed by analysis of chosen movement therapeutic approaches such a: expressive arts therapy, somatic analysis, dancemeditation, Feldenkrais technique, Laban Analysis and concluded by Dance Movement Therapy. As I found the most evidence of movement implications on our behaviors and nervous system supported by neuroscientists’ research about neurons mirroring - DMT has been my main focus to prove the theory of brain changes caused by movement. As we are only in the initial stage of the analysis how different parts of our body through movement can influence the brain structure and our well being, we can yet give some evidence of neuroscience’s research proving this theory, which partially have been described overall this essay.
Bibliography:
Bloom, Lazerson, & Hofstadter, 1985; Diamond et al., 1985; Kolb & Wishaw, 1985; Nolte, 1981; Restak, 1984
Cynthia F. Berrol, Neuroscience meets dance/movement therapy: Mirror neurons, the therapeutic process and empathy. Original Research Article
The Arts in Psychotherapy, Volume 33, Issue 4, 2006
Doige, Norman (2007). The Brain That Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph from the Frontiers of Brain Science. Viking. ISBN 067003830X. The Brain That Changes Itself site.
Levy, Fran J., Dance Movement Therapy: A Healing Art, (Reston, VA: The American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 1988)
Levine, Peter A.: Healing Trauma. A Pioneering Program for Restoring the Wisdom of Your Body incl.CD. Sounds True, Inc., Boulder, CO, 2005
Macnaughton, Ian (editor): Body, Breath & Consciousness - a Somatics Anthology. North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, 2004
Meekums, Bonnie, Dance Movement Therapy, (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc.)
Newlove, J. (1993) Laban for Actors and Dancers: Putting Laban's Movement
Theory into Practice, Nick Hern Books, London. ISBN 978-1854591609
Powers, S.K. & Howley, E.T. (2004). Exercise physiology. Theory and application to fitness and performance, 5th edition. Boston: McGraw Hill
Payne, Helen, Dance Movement Therapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, (Hove, East ok Sussex: Routledge, 2006)
Rakic, P. (January 2002). "Neurogenesis in adult primate neocortex: an evaluation of the evidence". Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3 (1): 65–71.doi:10.1038/nrn700. PMID 11823806
Siegler, Robert (2006). How Childred Develop, Exploring Child Develop Student Media Tool Kit & Scientific American Reader to Accompany How Children Develop. New York: Worth Publishers. ISBN 0716761130
Tang, S.W., Chu, E., Hui, T., Helmeste, D. & Law, C. (2008). Influence of exercise on serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor concentrations in healthy human subjects. Neuroscience Letters
Tang, Y.-Y., Ma, Y., Wang, J., Fan, Y., Feng, S., Lu, Q., Yu, Q., et al. (2007). Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation. PNAS
[1] Siegler, Robert (2006). How Childred Develop, Exploring Child Develop Student Media Tool Kit & Scientific American Reader to Accompany How Children Develop. New York: Worth Publishers. ISBN 0716761130
[2] C.F. Berrol / The Arts in Psychotherapy 33 (2006) 302–315 Basic structures of the brain (from Restak, with modifications, 1984, p. 13)
[3] Bloom, Lazerson, & Hofstadter, 1985; Diamond et al., 1985; Kolb & Wishaw, 1985; Nolte, 1981; Restak, 1984
[4] C.F. Berrol / The Arts in Psychotherapy 33 (2006) 302–315. Basic structures of the limbic system (Restak, 1984, p. 15)
[5] Bloom et al., 1985; Diamond et al., 1985; Luppino & Rizzolatti, 2000; Restak, 1984
[6] Bloom et al., 1985; Diamond et al., 1985; Luppino & Rizzolatti, 2000; Restak, 1984
[7] C.F. Berrol / The Arts in Psychotherapy 33 (2006) 302–315
[8] Bloom et al., 1985; Diamond et al., 1985; Luppino & Rizzolatti, 2000; Restak, 1984
[9] Diamond et al., 1985 (Gallese, 2003, 2005a; Rizzolatti, Fogassi, & Gallese, 2001; Wicker et al., 2003)
[10] Bloom et al., 1985; Diamond et al., 1985; Nolte, 1981; Restak, 1984
[11] Bloom et al., 1985; Diamond et al., 1985; Nolte, 1981; Restak, 1984
[12] Bloom et al., 1985; Diamond et al., 1985; Nolte, 1981; Restak, 1984
[13] Rakic, P. (January 2002). "Neurogenesis in adult primate neocortex: an evaluation of the evidence". Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3 (1): 65–71.doi:10.1038/nrn700. PMID 11823806
[14] http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1595878/
[15] Powers, S.K. & Howley, E.T. (2004). Exercise physiology. Theory and application to fitness and performance, 5th edition. Boston: McGraw Hill
[16] Levine, Peter A.: Healing Trauma. A Pioneering Program for Restoring the Wisdom of Your Body incl.CD. Sounds True, Inc., Boulder, CO, 2005
[17] Macnaughton, Ian (editor): Body, Breath & Consciousness - a Somatics Anthology. North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, 2004
[18] http://iffresearchjournal.org/volume/1/bearman
[19] Doige, Norman (2007). The Brain That Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph from the Frontiers of Brain Science. Viking. ISBN 067003830X. The Brain That Changes Itselfsite.
[20]http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=s6fwPPJjXT4C&oi=fnd&pg=PA227&dq=Feldenkrais+Method+and+neuroscience&ots=_kevaes0GG&sig=yFXNVGLgSLjroTEXQOxa_gNDbCU#v=onepage&q=Feldenkrais%20Method%20and%20neuroscience&f=false
[21] Newlove, J. (1993) Laban for Actors and Dancers: Putting Laban's Movement Theory into Practice, Nick Hern Books, London. ISBN 978-1854591609
[22] Payne, Helen, Dance Movement Therapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, (Hove, East ok Sussex: Routledge, 2006).
[23] Levy, Fran J., Dance Movement Therapy: A Healing Art, (Reston, VA: The American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 1988)
[24] Meekums, Bonnie, Dance Movement Therapy, (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc.)
[25] Neuroscience meets dance/movement therapy: Mirror neurons, the therapeutic process and empathy Original Research Article
The Arts in Psychotherapy, Volume 33, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 302-315
Cynthia F. Berrol
